Mbere y'uko indwara zikuraho indwara zigera kuri miliyari 3 cyangwa zirenga, iki giti cyafashije mu kubaka Amerika yateye imbere mu nganda. Kugira ngo tugarure icyubahiro cyayo cyatakaye, dushobora gukenera kwakira no gusana ibidukikije.
Mu 1989, Herbert Darling yahamagawe: Umuhigi yamubwiye ko yahuye n'igiti kirekire cy'umuhondo cyo muri Amerika mu isambu ya Darling mu kibaya cya Zor mu burengerazuba bwa New York. Darling yari azi ko umuhondo wo mu bwoko bwa chestnut wigeze kuba kimwe mu biti by'ingenzi muri ako gace. Yari azi kandi ko ikihumyo cyica hafi yacyo cyamaze imyaka irenga ijana n'igice gishize. Ubwo yumvaga raporo y'umuhigi yo kubona umuhondo wo mu bwoko bwa chestnut muzima, igiti cyawo cyari gifite uburebure bwa metero ebyiri kandi cyageze ku nyubako y'amagorofa atanu, yaragishidikanyagaho. Darling yagize ati: “Sinzi neza niba nizera ko azi icyo ari cyo.”
Ubwo Darling yabonaga igiti, byari nk'aho areba ishusho y'umugani. Yagize ati: “Byari byoroshye cyane kandi byari byiza gukora icyitegererezo - byari byiza cyane.” Ariko Darling yabonye ko igiti cyari kirimo gupfa. Kuva mu ntangiriro za 1900, cyahuye n'icyorezo nk'icyo, bivugwa ko cyateje impfu miliyari 3 cyangwa zirenga ziturutse kuri izo ndwara. Iyi ni yo ndwara ya mbere yandurira mu bantu yangiza ibiti mu mateka ya none. Darling yibwiraga ko niba adashoboye gukiza icyo giti, nibura yari kurokora imbuto zacyo. Hari ikibazo kimwe gusa: igiti ntacyo gikora kuko nta bindi biti bya chestnut biri hafi aho bishobora kugitera imyumbati.
Darling ni injeniyeri ukoresha uburyo bw'injeniyeri mu gukemura ibibazo. Mu kwezi kwa gatandatu kwakurikiyeho, ubwo indabyo z'umuhondo wijimye zanyanyagizwaga ku giti cy'icyatsi kibisi, Darling yujuje amasasu arimo ifu y'amasasu, yakuwe mu ndabyo z'abagabo z'ikindi giti cy'umuhondo yari yarize, maze anyura mu majyaruguru. Byatwaye isaha n'igice. Yarashe igiti ari mu kajugujugu yakodesheje. (Ayobora ikigo cy'ubwubatsi cyatsinze gishobora kwishyura amafaranga menshi.) Iki gikorwa cyarananiranye. Mu mwaka wakurikiyeho, Darling yongeye kugerageza. Kuri iyi nshuro, we n'umuhungu we bakuruye ikigo cyo gushingura amasasu ku masasu yari hejuru y'umusozi maze bubaka urubuga rufite uburebure bwa metero 25 mu byumweru birenga bibiri. Inshuti yanjye yazamutse ku masasu maze yoza indabyo n'indabyo zisa n'iz'inzoka ku kindi giti cy'umuhondo.
Muri uwo mwaka w'impeshyi, amashami y'igiti cya Darling yatangaga imbuto z'ibiti zitwikiriwe n'amahwa y'icyatsi kibisi. Ayo mahwa yari akomeye cyane ku buryo ashobora kwitiranywa na cacti. Umusaruro nturi mwinshi, hari imbuto zigera ku 100, ariko Darling yateye zimwe muri zo kandi yiringira. We n'inshuti ye banavuganye na Charles Maynard na William Powell, abahanga mu by'imiterere y'ibiti babiri bo muri Kaminuza ya Leta ya New York Ishuri ry'Ubumenyi bw'Ibidukikije n'Amashyamba i Syracuse (Chuck na Bill bapfuye). Baherutse gutangiza umushinga w'ubushakashatsi ku biti ku ngengo y'imari ntoya. Darling yabahaye imbuto z'ibiti z'ibiti maze abaza abahanga mu bya siyansi niba bashobora kuzikoresha kugira ngo bazigarure. Darling yagize ati: “Ibi bisa nkaho ari ibintu byiza cyane.” “Uburasirazuba bwa Leta Zunze Ubumwe za Amerika bwose.” Ariko, nyuma y'imyaka mike, igiti cye cyarapfuye.
Kuva Abanyaburayi batangira gutura muri Amerika ya Ruguru, inkuru ivuga ku mashyamba y’umugabane yarabaye igihombo gikomeye. Ariko, igitekerezo cya Darling ubu gifatwa na benshi nk'imwe mu mahirwe meza yo gutangira kuvugurura inkuru - mu ntangiriro z'uyu mwaka, Templeton World Charity Foundation yashyize umushinga wa Maynard na Powell mu mateka yawo menshi, kandi iki gikorwa cyashoboye gusenya igikorwa gito cyatwaye arenga miliyoni 3 z'amadolari. Niyo mpano nini cyane yigeze itangwa muri kaminuza. Ubushakashatsi bw'abahanga mu by'imiterere y'ibinyabuzima butuma abahanga mu by'ibidukikije bahangana n'icyo kibazo mu buryo bushya kandi rimwe na rimwe buteye ubwoba, ko gusana isi karemano bidasobanura gusubira mu busitani bwa Edeni bumeze neza. Ahubwo, bishobora gusobanura kwakira uruhare twihaye: injeniyeri w'ibintu byose harimo n'ibidukikije.
Amababi ya chestnut ni maremare kandi afite amenyo, kandi asa n'amababi abiri mato y'icyatsi kibisi afatanye inyuma n'umutsi wo hagati w'ikibabi. Ku mpera imwe, amababi abiri afatanye n'igiti. Ku yindi mpera, akora umutwe usongoye, ukunze kunama ku ruhande. Iyi miterere itunguranye inyura mu birunga by'icyatsi kibisi n'umucanga mu ishyamba, kandi amarangamutima atangaje y'abakerarugendo yakanguye ibitekerezo by'abantu, abibutsa urugendo rwabo mu ishyamba ryari rifite ibiti byinshi bikomeye.
Ni mu nyandiko no mu kwibuka gusa dushobora gusobanukirwa neza ibi biti. Lucille Griffin, umuyobozi mukuru w’ikigo cy’Abanyamerika gishinzwe guhuza ibiti bya Chestnut, yigeze kwandika ko aho hantu uzabona ibiti bya chestnut bikungahaye ku buryo mu mpeshyi, indabyo nziza kandi zigororotse ku giti "nk'imiraba y'ifuro yamanukaga ku musozi", biganisha ku kwibuka kwa sekuru. Mu gihe cy'impeshyi, igiti kizongera guturika, kuri iyi nshuro gifite imitobe itwikira uburyohe. Thoreau wari ufite imbaraga yanditse muri “Walden” ati: “Ubwo ibiti bya chestnut byari byeze, narunze igice cya bushel mu gihe cy'itumba.” “Muri icyo gihe, byari bishimishije cyane kuzerera mu ishyamba rya chestnut ritagira ingano i Lincoln muri icyo gihe.”
Imbuto za chestnut ni nziza cyane. Bitandukanye n'ibiti by'ibiti by'imyerezi bivamo imbuto z'inkoko gusa mu myaka mike, ibiti bya chestnut bitanga umusaruro mwinshi w'imbuto buri gihe cy'impeshyi. Imbuto za chestnut nazo zoroshye kuzisya: ushobora kuzikuramo hanyuma ukarya mbisi. (Gerageza gukoresha imbuto z'inkoko zikungahaye kuri tannins - cyangwa ntubikore.) Buri wese arya imbuto za chestnut: impongo, inkeri, idubu, inyoni, abantu. Abahinzi barekura ingurube zabo maze bakagira ibinure mu ishyamba. Mu gihe cya Noheli, gari ya moshi yuzuye imbuto za chestnut yavaga mu misozi ijya mu mujyi. Yego, koko zatwitswe n'umuriro. William L. Bray, umuyobozi wa mbere w'ishuri Maynard na Powell bakoreyemo nyuma, yagize ati: "Bivugwa ko mu turere tumwe na tumwe, abahinzi babona amafaranga menshi mu kugurisha imbuto za chestnut kurusha ibindi bicuruzwa byose by'ubuhinzi." Byanditswe mu 1915. Ni igiti cy'abaturage, inyinshi muri zo zikurira mu ishyamba.
Nanone itanga ibirenze ibyo kurya gusa. Ibiti bya chestnut bishobora kuzamuka kugeza kuri metero 120, kandi metero 50 za mbere ntizibangamirwa n'amashami cyangwa amapfundo. Iyi ni inzozi z'abakora ibiti. Nubwo atari igiti cyiza cyane cyangwa gikomeye kurusha ibindi, gikura vuba cyane, cyane cyane iyo cyongeye kumera nyuma yo gutema kandi ntikibore. Kubera ko kuramba kw'imigozi ya gari ya moshi n'inkingi za terefone byarenze ubwiza, Chestnut yafashije kubaka Amerika yateye imbere mu nganda. Ibigega ibihumbi, amazu n'insengero bikozwe mu mabuye y'agaciro biracyariho; umwanditsi mu 1915 yavuze ko iki ari cyo giti cyatemwe cyane muri Leta Zunze Ubumwe za Amerika.
Mu gice kinini cy'iburasirazuba - ibiti biva muri Mississippi kugeza muri Maine, no kuva ku nkombe ya Atalantika kugeza ku ruzi rwa Mississippi - ibiti bya chestnuts nabyo ni bimwe muri byo. Ariko muri Appalachians, cyari igiti kinini. Miriyari z'ibiti bya chestnuts biba kuri iyi misozi.
Birakwiye ko Fusarium wilt yagaragaye bwa mbere i New York, ari na yo nzira igana ku Banyamerika benshi. Mu 1904, habonetse ubwandu budasanzwe ku gishishwa cy'igiti cya chestnut kiri mu nzira yo gucika muri Bronx Zoo. Abashakashatsi bahise basanga ibihumyo byateraga indwara ya bagiteri (nyuma byitwa Cryphonectria parasitica) byageze ku biti by’Abayapani byatumijwe mu mahanga mu 1876. (Ubusanzwe hari igihe kidatinze hagati yo gutangiza ubwoko runaka no kuvumbura ibibazo bigaragara.)
Bidatinze abantu bo muri leta nyinshi bavuze ko ibiti byapfuye. Mu 1906, William A. Murrill, inzobere mu by’ibinyabuzima mu busitani bw’ibimera bwa New York, yasohoye inkuru ya mbere ya siyansi kuri iyi ndwara. Muriel yagaragaje ko iyi fungus itera ubwandu bw’udusimba tw’umuhondo ku gishishwa cy’igiti cya chestnut, amaherezo bigatuma gisukura impande zose z’igiti. Iyo intungamubiri n’amazi bitagishoboye gutemba mu miyoboro y’igishishwa munsi y’igishishwa, ikintu cyose kiri hejuru y’uruziga rw’urupfu kizapfa.
Hari abantu badashobora kwiyumvisha - cyangwa badashaka ko abandi batekereza - igiti kizimira mu ishyamba. Mu 1911, Sober Paragon Chestnut Farm, ikigo cy’incuke cyo muri Pennsylvania, cyizeraga ko iyo ndwara "irenze ubwoba gusa." Kubaho igihe kirekire kw'abanyamakuru batagira icyo bakora. Ubuhinzi bwafunzwe mu 1913. Hashize imyaka ibiri, Pennsylvania yatumije komite ishinzwe indwara y'ibishishwa, yemerewe gukoresha amadolari y'Amerika 275.000 (amafaranga menshi icyo gihe), kandi yatangaje ububasha bwo gufata ingamba zo kurwanya ubu bubabare, harimo n'uburenganzira bwo kwangiza ibiti ku mutungo bwite. Abahanga mu ndwara basaba gukuraho ibiti byose by'ibishishwa biri mu birometero bike uvuye imbere y'ubwandu bw'ibanze kugira ngo habeho ingaruka zo gukumira inkongi. Ariko byagaragaye ko iyi fungus ishobora gusimbuka ikagera ku biti bitanduye, kandi udukoko twayo twanduzwa n'umuyaga, inyoni, udukoko n'abantu. Gahunda yarahagaritswe.
Mu 1940, hafi ya yose, nta bimera binini bya chestnut byari byaranduye. Muri iki gihe, agaciro ka miliyari z'amadolari karahanaguwe. Kubera ko fusarium wilt idashobora kubaho mu butaka, imizi ya chestnut ikomeje kumera, kandi irenga miliyoni 400 muri yo iracyari mu ishyamba. Ariko, Fusarium wilt yabonye ikigega mu giti cy'igiti cy'umuoki aho yabaga nta cyangiritse cyane ku muntu wagiteye. Kuva aho, ikwirakwira vuba ikagera ku mimero mishya ya chestnut ikayisubiza hasi, akenshi mbere yuko igera ku rwego rwo kurabya.
Inganda zikora ibiti zabonye andi mahitamo: igiti cy'umwela, pinusi, walnut, n'ivu. Gutera uruhu, urundi rwego rukomeye rukoresha ibiti bya chestnut, rwahinduye uruhu rukoresha ibyuma bitunganya uruhu. Ku bahinzi benshi bakennye, nta kintu na kimwe cyo guhindura: nta kindi giti gakondo giha abahinzi n'amatungo yabo karori na poroteyine ku buntu, byizewe kandi byinshi. Indwara ya chestnut ishobora kuvugwa ko ihagarika ubuhinzi busanzwe bwa Appalachian, butuma abaturage bo muri ako gace bagira amahitamo agaragara: kujya mu kirombe cy'amakara cyangwa kwimuka. Umuhanga mu by'amateka Donald Davis yanditse mu 2005 ati: “Kubera urupfu rw'ibimera bya chestnut, isi yose yarapfuye, bikuraho imigenzo yo kubaho yari isanzwe mu misozi ya Appalachian mu binyejana birenga bine.”
Powell yakuriye kure y’aba Appalachians n’aba chestnuts. Se yakoraga mu ngabo zirwanira mu kirere yimukiye mu muryango we: Indiana, Florida, Ubudage, no ku nkombe y’iburasirazuba bwa Maryland. Nubwo yamaze umwuga i New York, amagambo ye yagumanye ukuri nk’uko byari bimeze mu Burengerazuba bwo hagati ndetse n’uburangare bugaragara ariko bugaragara mu Majyepfo. Imyitwarire ye yoroshye n’uburyo bworoshye bwo kudoda byuzuzanya, birimo ipantalo za jeans zifite ishati isa n’aho idashira. Interuro akunda cyane ni "wow".
Powell arateganya kuba umuganga w’amatungo kugeza igihe umwarimu w’ubushakashatsi mu by’imiterere y’ibinyabuzima azamusezeranya icyizere cy’ubuhinzi bushya kandi bunoze bushingiye ku bimera byahinduwe mu buryo bw’uturemangingo bishobora gutanga ubushobozi bwabyo bwo kwirinda udukoko n’indwara. Powell yagize ati: “Natekereje nti, si byiza gukora ibimera bishobora kwirinda udukoko, kandi ntugomba kubitera imiti yica udukoko?” “Birumvikana ko n’ibindi bice by’isi bidakurikiza igitekerezo kimwe.”
Ubwo Powell yageraga mu ishuri rikuru rya Kaminuza ya Leta ya Utah mu 1983, ntacyo byamutwaye. Ariko, yaje kujya muri laboratwari y'umuhanga mu binyabuzima, kandi yari arimo gukora kuri virusi ishobora kwangiza ubwivumbure bw'ibihumyo. Bagerageje gukoresha iyi virusi ntabwo byagenze neza cyane: ntiyakwirakwiriye igiti kimwe ku giti, bityo yagombaga guhindurwa kugira ngo ikoreshwe mu bwoko bwinshi bw'ibihumyo. Nubwo bimeze bityo, Powell yashimishijwe n'inkuru y'igiti kinini cyaguye hasi maze atanga igisubizo cya siyansi ku makosa ababaje yakozwe n'abantu. Yagize ati: “Bitewe n'imicungire mibi y'ibicuruzwa byacu bigenda hirya no hino ku isi, twatumije indwara zitera indwara ku buryo butunguranye.” “Natekereje nti: Wow, ibi birashishikaje. Hari amahirwe yo kubigarura.”
Powell ntabwo yari we wa mbere wagerageje gukuraho igihombo. Nyuma y'uko bigaragaye ko ibiti by'inkeri byo muri Amerika byari bigiye kunanirwa, USDA yagerageje gutera ibiti by'inkeri byo mu Bushinwa, ikimera kimwe kirwanya gushwanyagurika, kugira ngo yumve niba ubwo bwoko bushobora gusimbura ibiti by'inkeri byo muri Amerika. Ariko, ibiti by'inkeri bikura cyane hanze, kandi bisa n'ibiti by'imbuto kuruta ibiti by'imbuto. Byari bito mu ishyamba kubera ibiti by'ibiti bya oak n'ibindi binini byo muri Amerika. Imikurire yabyo irahagarikwa, cyangwa bigapfa gusa. Abahanga mu bya siyansi bagerageje kandi kororera ibiti by'inkeri byo muri Leta Zunze Ubumwe za Amerika n'Ubushinwa hamwe, bizeye ko bizabyara igiti gifite imiterere myiza yabyo byombi. Imbaraga za leta zarananiwe maze zirahagarikwa.
Powell yarangije akora muri Kaminuza ya Leta ya New York Ishuri ry’Ubumenyi bw’Ibidukikije n’Amashyamba, aho yahuriye na Chuck Maynard, inzobere mu by’imiterere y’ibinyabuzima wateye ibiti muri laboratwari. Mu myaka mike ishize, abahanga mu bya siyansi bakoze ingingo ya mbere y’ibimera byahinduwe mu buryo bw’uturemangingo - bongeramo ingirabuzimafatizo itanga ubudahangarwa ku itabi mu buryo bwa tekiniki aho gukoreshwa mu bucuruzi ubwo ari bwo bwose. Maynard (Maynard) yatangiye kwivanga mu ikoranabuhanga rishya, mu gihe yashakaga ikoranabuhanga ry’ingirakamaro rijyanye naryo. Icyo gihe, Darling yari afite imbuto n’ikibazo: gusana ibimera by’Abanyamerika bya chestnut.
Mu myaka ibihumbi y'ubworozi gakondo bw'ibimera, abahinzi (n'abahanga ba vuba aha) bavanze ubwoko bw'ibimera n'imiterere byifuzwa. Hanyuma, utunyangingo turavangwa mu buryo busanzwe, maze abantu bagahitamo uruvange rwiza kugira ngo babone umusaruro mwiza - imbuto nini, nziza cyangwa izirwanya indwara. Ubusanzwe, bifata imbyaro nyinshi kugira ngo haboneke umusaruro. Iyi nzira igenda buhoro kandi iteye urujijo. Darling yibajije niba ubu buryo bwatanga igiti cyiza nk'icyayo. Yarambwiye ati: “Ndatekereza ko dushobora gukora neza kurushaho.”
Ubwubatsi bw'uturemangingo bivuze kugenzura cyane: nubwo gene runaka yaturuka mu bwoko budafite aho buhuriye, ishobora gutoranywa kugira ngo ikoreshwe mu ntego runaka hanyuma igashyirwa muri gene y'ikindi kinyabuzima. (Ibinyabuzima bifite gene zikomoka mu bwoko butandukanye "byahinduwe mu buryo bwa genetike." Vuba aha, abahanga mu bya siyansi bavumbuye uburyo bwo guhindura gene y'ibinyabuzima byibasiwe.) Iri koranabuhanga risezeranya ubwiza n'umuvuduko udasanzwe. Powell yizera ko ibi bisa nkaho bikwiriye cyane ku bimera byo muri Amerika, yise "ibiti hafi ya byose" - bikomeye, birebire, kandi bikungahaye ku biryo, bisaba gusa gukosora byihariye: kurwanya indwara ya bagiteri.
Murabyemera. Yagize ati: “Tugomba kugira injeniyeri mu bucuruzi bwacu.” “Kuva ku bwubatsi kugeza ku bwubatsi, ubu ni ubwoko bw'imikorere y'ikoranabuhanga.”
Powell na Maynard bavuga ko bishobora gufata imyaka icumi kugira ngo haboneke utunyangingo dutanga ubudahangarwa, hakorwe ikoranabuhanga ryo kutwongera muri genome ya chestnut, hanyuma tukayikura. Powell yagize ati: “Turimo turakeka gusa. Nta muntu ufite utwangingo dutanga ubudahangarwa bw’ibihumyo. Mu by’ukuri twatangiriye ahantu hatari ikintu.”
Darling yasabye inkunga muri American Chestnut Foundation, umuryango udaharanira inyungu washinzwe mu ntangiriro ya za 1980. Umuyobozi wawo yamubwiye ko yari yazimiye cyane. Biyemeje kuvanga kandi bagakomeza kuba maso ku bijyanye n’ubuhanga mu by’imiterere y’ibinyabuzima, ibyo bikaba byaratumye abaharanira ibidukikije batavuga rumwe. Kubwibyo, Darling yashinze umuryango we udaharanira inyungu kugira ngo atere inkunga imirimo y’ubuhanga mu by’imiterere y’ibinyabuzima. Powell yavuze ko umuryango wandikiye Maynard na Powell sheki ya mbere ku madolari 30.000. (Mu 1990, umuryango w’igihugu wavuguruye kandi wemera itsinda rya Darling ryigenga nk’ishami rya mbere rya leta, ariko bamwe mu banyamuryango bari bagishidikanya cyangwa bakanga burundu ubuhanga mu by’imiterere y’ibinyabuzima.)
Maynard na Powell bari mu kazi. Ako kanya, ingengabihe yabo yagenwe yagaragaye ko idashoboka. Imbogamizi ya mbere ni ukumenya uburyo bwo guhinga ibimera by'inkeri muri laboratwari. Maynard yagerageje kuvanga amababi ya chestnut na hormone yo gukura mu isafuriya ya petri y'uruziga, uburyo bukoreshwa mu guhinga populari. Byagaragaye ko ibi bidashoboka. Ibiti bishya ntibizakura imizi n'imishibu bivuye mu turemangingo twihariye. Maynard yagize ati: “Ndi intangarugero ku isi mu kwica ibiti by'inkeri.” Umushakashatsi muri Kaminuza ya Jeworujiya, Scott Merkle (Scott Merkle) yarangije yigisha Maynard uburyo bwo kuva ku isuku y'imbuto kugeza ku yindi. Ibimera by'inkeri mu ntanga mu gihe cyo gukura.
Kubona gene ikwiye-akazi ka Powell-nabyo byaragoye. Yamaze imyaka myinshi akora ubushakashatsi ku kintu kirwanya bagiteri gishingiye ku ngirabuzimafatizo z'ibikeri, ariko yaretse icyo kintu kubera impungenge z'uko abaturage bashobora kutemera ibiti bifite ibikeri. Yanashatse gene irwanya indwara ya bagiteri mu bikoko, ariko asanga kurinda igiti bikubiyemo ngirabuzimafatizo nyinshi (basanze nibura esheshatu). Hanyuma, mu 1997, mugenzi we yagarutse avuye mu nama ya siyansi maze ashyira ahagaragara incamake n'ibisobanuro. Powell yavuze umutwe witwa "Kugaragaza oxalate oxidase mu bimera byahinduwe bitanga ubudahangarwa ku bihumyo bitanga oxalate na oxalate". Mu bushakashatsi bwe bwa virusi, Powell yari azi ko ibihumyo bipfa bisohora aside oxalic kugira ngo byice igishishwa cya chestnut kandi bikorohe kuyigogora. Powell yabonye ko niba chestnut ishobora gukora oxalate oxidase yayo (poroteyine yihariye ishobora gusenya oxalate), ishobora no kwirwanaho. Yagize ati: "Uko ni ko byari ibihe byanjye bya Eureka."
Byagaragaye ko ibimera byinshi bifite gene ibafasha gukora oxalate oxidase. Ku mushakashatsi watanze ijambo, Powell yabonye ubwoko bw'ingano. Umunyeshuri wo muri kaminuza Linda Polin McGuigan yanogeje ikoranabuhanga rya "gene gun" ryo gushyira gene mu ntanga z'urusoro, yizeye ko zishobora gushyirwa muri ADN y'urusoro. Gene yagumye mu ntanga z'urusoro by'agateganyo, ariko irazimira. Itsinda ry'ubushakashatsi ryaretse ubu buryo maze rihindura bagiteri kera cyane yatangije uburyo bwo gukata ADN y'ibindi binyabuzima no gushyiramo gene zabo. Muri kamere, mikorobe zongeramo gene zihatira nyirayo gukora ibiryo bya bagiteri. Abahanga mu by'imiterere y'urusoro binjiye muri iyi bagiteri kugira ngo ibashe gushyiramo gene iyo ari yo yose umuhanga mu bya siyansi ashaka. McGuigan yabonye ubushobozi bwo kongeramo gene z'ingano na poroteyine z'ibimenyetso mu ntanga z'urusoro. Iyo poroteyine irangijwe hifashishijwe mikorosikopi, poroteyine izatanga urumuri rw'icyatsi kibisi, bigaragaza ko yashyizwemo neza. (Itsinda ryahagaritse vuba gukoresha poroteyine z'ibimenyetso - nta muntu washakaga igiti gishobora kurabagirana.) Maynard yise ubwo buryo "ikintu cyiza cyane ku isi."
Uko igihe cyagiye gihita, Maynard na Powell bubatse umurongo w’iteraniro ry’urusenda, ubu ugera ku magorofa menshi y’inyubako nziza cyane y’ubushakashatsi ku mashyamba yo mu myaka ya 1960, ndetse n’ikigo gishya cyiza cyane cyitwa "Biotech Accelerator". Iyi gahunda ibanza ikubiyemo guhitamo intanga zimera mu tunyangingo dusa na genetike (intanga nyinshi zakozwe muri laboratwari ntizikora ibi, bityo nta cyo bimaze gukora clones) no gushyiramo gene z’ingano. Utunyangingo tw’urusenda, nka agar, ni ibintu bimeze nk'ibinyampeke biva mu bimera by’ibimera. Kugira ngo urusenda ruhinduke igiti, abashakashatsi bongeyeho imisemburo yo gukura. Ibikoresho bya plastiki amagana bifite ishusho y’utubumbe bifite ibiti bito bya chestnut bidafite imizi bishobora gushyirwa ku gisenge munsi y’itara rikomeye ry’urumuri. Amaherezo, abahanga bakoresheje imisemburo yo gukura imizi, batera ibiti byabo bya mbere mu nkono zuzuyemo ubutaka, babishyira mu cyumba cyo gukuramo gicungwa n’ubushyuhe. Ntibitangaje ko ibiti byo muri laboratwari biri mu mimerere mibi hanze. Kubwibyo, abashakashatsi babihuje n’ibiti byo mu gasozi kugira ngo bakore ingero zikomeye ariko zikomeje kwihanganira gupimwa mu murima.
Mu mpeshyi ebyiri zishize, Hannah Pilkey, umunyeshuri warangije muri laboratwari ya Powell, yanyeretse uburyo bwo kubikora. Yahinze ibihumyo bitera indwara ya bagiteri mu gikombe gito cya pulasitiki cya petri. Muri ubu buryo bufunze, indwara y'umuhondo werurutse isa neza kandi isa neza cyane. Biragoye kwiyumvisha ko ari yo mpamvu y'urupfu n'irimbuka ry'abantu benshi.
Twiga yari hasi yapfukamye hasi, ishyira ikimenyetso ku gice cy'igiti gito cya milimetero eshanu, ikora uduce dutatu twiza n'icyuma cyo gukata, maze isiga ibisebe ku gikomere. Yabifunze n'agapfukamunwa ka pulasitiki. Yaravuze ati: “Bimeze nk'igitambaro cyo gupfuka.” Kubera ko iki ari igiti kidakira, yiteze ko ubwandu bw'icunga bukwirakwira vuba buturutse aho bwatewe kandi amaherezo bukazenguruka amashami mato. Yanyeretse ibiti bimwe na bimwe byari birimo ingano yari yaravuriye mbere. Ubwandu bugarukira ku gukata, nk'iminwa y'icunga yoroshye hafi y'umunwa muto.
Mu 2013, Maynard na Powell batangaje ko batsinze mu bushakashatsi bwa Transgenic: nyuma y'imyaka 109 indwara ya chestnut yo muri Amerika ivumbuwe, bakoze ibiti bisa nkaho byirinda, nubwo byaba byibasiwe n'ibihumyo byinshi bishwanyagurika. Mu rwego rwo guha icyubahiro uwabatanze bwa mbere kandi w’umunyabuntu, yashoye amadolari agera ku 250.000, kandi abashakashatsi bagiye bita ibiti izina rye. Ibi byitwa Darling 58.
Inama ngarukamwaka y’ishami rya New York ry’umuryango w’Abanyamerika witwa American Chestnut Foundation yabereye muri hoteli ntoya hanze ya New Paltz ku wa gatandatu w’imvura mu Ukwakira 2018. Abantu bagera kuri 50 bateraniye hamwe. Iyi nama igice kimwe cyari inama ya siyansi ikindi gice cyari inama yo guhanahana ibinyobwa. Inyuma y’icyumba gito cy’inama, abanyamuryango bahanahanaga imifuka ya Ziploc yuzuye imbuto. Iyi nama yari inshuro ya mbere mu myaka 28 Darling cyangwa Maynard batitabiriye. Ibibazo by’ubuzima byababujije bombi kujyayo. Allen Nichols, perezida w’urugaga, yambwiye ati: “Tumaze igihe kinini tubikora, kandi hafi buri mwaka duceceka ku bapfuye.” Nyamara, umwuka uracyari mwiza: igiti cyahinduwe mu buryo bw’uturemangingo cyamaze imyaka myinshi gikorerwa ibizamini bikomeye by’umutekano n’imikorere myiza.
Abagize itsinda batanze incamake irambuye ku miterere ya buri giti kinini cya chestnut gituye muri Leta ya New York. Pilkey n'abandi banyeshuri barangije amasomo bagaragaje uburyo bwo gukusanya no kubika impongo, uburyo bwo guhinga chestnut munsi y'amatara yo mu nzu, n'uburyo bwo kuzuza ubutaka indwara ya kanseri kugira ngo yongere igihe cyo kubaho kw'ibiti. Abantu bapfutse cashew mu gituza, benshi muri bo bakura impongo kandi bagahinga ibiti byabo, babajije ibibazo abahanga mu bya siyansi bakiri bato.
Bowell yiyambitse hasi, yambaye imyenda isa n’aho ari iy’ubusanzwe muri iki gice: ishati imeze nk’ijosi yambaye ipantalo y’ijipo. Igerageza rye ry’imyaka mirongo itatu ryateguwe hakurikijwe intego ya Herb Darling yo kugarura ibimera by’ijipo - ni gake cyane mu bahanga mu bya siyansi, bakunze gukora ubushakashatsi mu gihe cy’imyaka itanu, hanyuma ibisubizo byiza bigashyikirizwa abandi kugira ngo babigurishe. Don Leopold, mugenzi we mu ishami rya Powell rishinzwe ibidukikije n’amashyamba, yarambwiye ati: “Arabyitayeho cyane kandi afite ikinyabupfura.” “Arabyiyambura. Nta bintu byinshi bimurangaza. Ubwo ubushakashatsi bwageraga ku iterambere, abayobozi ba Kaminuza ya Leta ya New York (SUNY) baramuhamagaye bamusaba uburenganzira bwo gukoresha igiti cye kugira ngo kaminuza ibashe kubyungukiramo, ariko Powell yarabyanze. Yavuze ko ibiti byahinduwe mu buryo bw’uturemangingo bimeze nk’ibimera by’ijipo kandi bikorera abantu. Abantu ba Powell bari muri iki cyumba.
Ariko yababuriye ati: Nyuma yo gutsinda inzitizi nyinshi za tekiniki, ibiti byahinduwe genetiki ubu bishobora guhura n'ikibazo gikomeye: guverinoma ya Amerika. Mu byumweru bike bishize, Powell yatanze dosiye y'amapaji agera ku 3.000 kuri Minisiteri y'Ubuhinzi ya Amerika ishinzwe kugenzura Ubuzima bw'inyamaswa n'ibimera, ifite inshingano zo kwemeza ibimera byahinduwe genetiki. Ibi bitangira inzira yo kwemeza ikigo: gusuzuma ubusabe, gusaba ibitekerezo bya rubanda, gutanga itangazo ku ngaruka ku bidukikije, gusaba ibitekerezo bya rubanda no gufata icyemezo. Uyu murimo ushobora gufata imyaka myinshi. Niba nta cyemezo gifashwe, umushinga ushobora guhagarara. (Igihe cya mbere cyo gutanga ibitekerezo bya rubanda ntikiratangira.)
Abashakashatsi barateganya kohereza ibindi byifuzo mu Kigo gishinzwe Ibiribwa n'Imiti kugira ngo gishobore kugenzura umutekano w'ibiribwa by'imbuto zahinduwe mu buryo bw'uturemangingo, kandi Ikigo gishinzwe kurengera ibidukikije kizasuzuma ingaruka z'iki giti ku bidukikije hakurikijwe Itegeko rya Leta rigenga imiti yica udukoko, risabwa ku bimera byose byahinduwe mu buryo bw'uturemangingo. Umwe mu bari aho yagize ati: “Ibi biragoye kurusha siyansi!”
“Yego.” Powell yaremeye. “Siyansi irashishikaje. Birababaje.” (Nyuma yarambwiye ati: “Ubugenzuzi bw’inzego eshatu zitandukanye ni ikintu gikabije. Mu by’ukuri bwica udushya mu kurengera ibidukikije.”)
Kugira ngo bagaragaze ko igiti cyabo gitekanye, itsinda rya Powell ryakoze ibizamini bitandukanye. Bahaye oxalate oxidase inzoga z'inzuki. Bapimye imikurire y'ibihumyo by'ingirakamaro mu butaka. Basize amababi mu mazi banasuzuma ingaruka zabyo kuri t. Nta ngaruka mbi zagaragaye mu bushakashatsi ubwo aribwo bwose - mu by'ukuri, imikorere y'indyo yahinduwe mu buryo bw'uturemangingo iruta amababi y'ibiti bimwe na bimwe bitarahindurwa. Abahanga mu bya siyansi bohereje imbuto muri Laboratwari y'Igihugu ya Oak Ridge n'izindi laboratwari muri Tennessee kugira ngo zisesengurwe, kandi nta tandukaniro ryabonetse hagati y'imbuto zakozwe n'ibiti bitarahindurwa.
Ibisubizo nk'ibi bishobora guhumuriza abashinzwe kugenzura. Nta gushidikanya ko bitazashimisha abaharanira ivanguramoko rya GMO. John Dougherty, umuhanga mu bya siyansi wavuye mu kiruhuko cy'izabukuru wo muri Monsanto, yahaye Powell serivisi zo gutanga ubujyanama ku buntu. Yavuze ko aba bahanganye ari "abatavuga rumwe n'ubutegetsi." Mu myaka ibarirwa muri za mirongo, imiryango irengera ibidukikije yagiye iburira ko kwimura ingirabuzimafatizo hagati y'amoko afitanye isano ya kure bizagira ingaruka zitari ziteganijwe, nko kurema "icyatsi kibisi" kiruta ibimera karemano, cyangwa kwinjiza ingirabuzimafatizo z'amahanga zishobora gutera ingaruka mbi ku muntu utuye muri ADN y'ubwoko. Bafite impungenge kandi ko amasosiyete akoresha ubuhanga mu by'imiterere y'ibinyabuzima kugira ngo abone uburenganzira bwo gukoresha no kugenzura ibinyabuzima.
Kuri ubu, Powell yavuze ko nta mafaranga yabonye mu buryo butaziguye aturutse mu nganda, kandi yashimangiye ko inkunga y’inkunga muri laboratwari “itajyanye.” Ariko, Brenda Jo McManama, wateguye umuryango witwa “Ihuriro ry’ibidukikije by’abasangwabutaka”, yagaragaje amasezerano mu 2010 aho Monsanto yahaye Chestnut Foundation n’ikigo cyayo gifatanya na New York The chapter yemereye patenti ebyiri zo guhindura imiterere y’uturemangingo. (Powell yavuze ko imisanzu y’inganda, harimo na Monsanto, ingana na 4% by’imari yose y’akazi kayo.) McManama akeka ko Monsanto (yaguzwe na Bayer mu 2018) irimo gushaka patenti mu ibanga ishyigikira umushinga usa n’aho ari wo uzahinduka igiti mu gihe kizaza. “Monsan ni mbi cyane,” yavuze mu buryo bweruye.
Powell yavuze ko patenti yo mu masezerano yo mu 2010 yarangiye, kandi mu gutangaza amakuru arambuye ku giti cye mu nyandiko za siyansi, yemeje ko igiti kidashobora guhabwa patenti. Ariko yabonye ko ibi bitazakuraho impungenge zose. Yagize ati: “Nzi ko hari umuntu wavuga ko uri umutego wa Monsanto gusa.” “Wakora iki? Nta cyo wakora.”
Mu myaka itanu ishize, abayobozi b'Umuryango w’Abanyamerika witwa American Chestnut Foundation bafashe umwanzuro ko badashobora kugera ku ntego zabo binyuze mu guhuza gusa, bityo bemera gahunda ya Powell yo gukora igenamigambi ry’uturemangingo. Iki cyemezo cyateje kutumvikana. Muri Werurwe 2019, perezida w’ishami rya Massachusetts-Rhode Island ry’uyu Muryango, Lois Breault-Melican, yeguye, avuga ko Umushinga w’Ubutabera ku Isi (Global Justice Ecology Project), umuryango urwanya igenamigambi ry’uturemangingo ukorera muri Buffalo. Justice Ecology Project); umugabo we Denis Melican na we yavuye mu nama. Dennis yambwiye ko aba bombi bahangayikishijwe cyane n’uko igenamigambi rya Powell rishobora kuba “ifarashi ya Trojan”, ryafunguye inzira y’ibindi biti by’ubucuruzi byongerwamo imbaraga binyuze mu igenamigambi ry’uturemangingo.
Susan Offutt, umuhanga mu by'ubukungu mu buhinzi, ni Perezida wa Komite y'Igihugu y'Ubumenyi, Ubwubatsi n'Ubuvuzi, yakoze ubushakashatsi ku ikoranabuhanga mu mashyamba mu 2018. Yagaragaje ko inzira ya leta igenzura yibanda ku kibazo gito cy'ingaruka z'ibinyabuzima, kandi ko itigeze itekereza ku bibazo by'imibereho, nk'ibyagaragajwe n'abaharanira kurwanya GMO. Yagize ati: “Agaciro k'ishyamba ni akahe?”, nk'urugero rw'ikibazo, inzira ntiyakemuye. Yagize ati: “Ese amashyamba afite ibyiza byayo? Ese dufite inshingano zo kuzirikana ibi mu gihe dufata ibyemezo byo kurengera ibidukikije?”
Abenshi mu bahanga mu bya siyansi naganiriye nabo nta mpamvu bafite yo guhangayikishwa n’ibiti bya Powell, kuko ishyamba ryangiritse cyane: gutema ibiti, ubucukuzi bw’amabuye y’agaciro, iterambere, n’udukoko n’indwara nyinshi zangiza ibiti. Muri byo, uburozi bw’ibimera byagaragaye ko ari umuhango wo gufungura. Gary Lovett, umuhanga mu by’ibidukikije mu ishyamba muri Cary Ecosystem Institute i Millbrook, muri New York, yagize ati: “Ingaruka z’ibimera byahinduwe mu buryo bw’uturemangingo ni nto cyane.”
Donald Waller, umuhanga mu by’ibidukikije mu mashyamba uherutse gusezera muri Kaminuza ya Wisconsin-Madison, yarakomeje. Yarambwiye ati: “Ku ruhande rumwe, ndasobanura uburyo bwo kuringaniza ibyago n’ibihembo. Ku rundi ruhande, nkomeza kwikanga ibyago.” Iki giti cyahinduwe mu buryo bw’uturemangingo gishobora guteza akaga ishyamba. Ibinyuranye n’ibyo, “urupapuro ruri munsi y’ibihembo rurimo wino yuzuye.” Yavuze ko igiti cy’umuhondo kirwanya gushwanyagurika kizatsinda iri shyamba riri mu kaga. Abantu bakeneye ibyiringiro. Abantu bakeneye ibimenyetso.”
Powell akunda gutuza, ariko abashidikanya ku bijyanye n’ubuhanga mu by’imiterere y’uturemangingo bashobora kumuhungabanya. Yagize ati: “Ntabwo bimfitiye akamaro.” “Ntabwo bishingiye kuri siyansi.” Iyo injeniyeri zikora imodoka nziza cyangwa telefoni zigezweho, nta muntu winubira, bityo aba ashaka kumenya ikibazo kiri mu biti byakozwe neza. Powell yagize ati: “Iki ni igikoresho gishobora gufasha. Kuki muvuga ko tudashobora gukoresha iki gikoresho? Dushobora gukoresha screwdriver ya Phillips, ariko ntabwo ari screwdriver isanzwe, n’ibindi?”
Mu ntangiriro z'Ukwakira 2018, najyanye na Powell kuri sitasiyo y'ubutaka yoroheje mu majyepfo ya Syracuse. Yari yizeye ko ahazaza h'ubwoko bw'ibimera byo muri Amerika bya chestnut hazaba hameze neza. Aha hantu hameze nk'aho ari ubutayu, kandi ni hamwe mu hantu hake ibiti byemerewe guhingwa. Amashyamba maremare y'ibiti bya pinusi na larch, umusaruro w'umushinga w'ubushakashatsi wari warasizwe kera, ahengamiye iburasirazuba, kure y'umuyaga uhuha cyane, bigatuma ako gace gasa n'aho gateye ubwoba gato.
Umushakashatsi Andrew Newhouse wo muri laboratwari ya Powell asanzwe akora kuri kimwe mu biti byiza ku bahanga mu bya siyansi, ikimera cy’umuhondo cyo mu gasozi gituruka mu majyepfo ya Virijiniya. Iki giti gifite uburebure bwa metero 25 kandi gikurira mu murima w’umuhondo ukozwe mu buryo butunguranye ukikijwe n’uruzitiro rw’impala rufite uburebure bwa metero 3. Iki gikapu cy’ishuri cyari kiboheye ku mpera z’amashami amwe n’amwe y’igiti. Newhouse yasobanuye ko igikapu cy’imbere cya pulasitiki cyari cyafatiwe mu mukungugu wa Darling 58 abahanga mu bya siyansi basabye muri Kamena, mu gihe igikapu cy’inyuma cy’icyuma cyarindaga inyenzi kugira ngo zitamera. Ikigo cyose kiri munsi y’ubuyobozi bukomeye bwa Minisiteri y’Ubuhinzi ya Leta Zunze Ubumwe za Amerika; mbere yo gukuraho amategeko, imbuto cyangwa imbuto zikomoka ku biti bifite imiterere y’uturemangingo mu ruzitiro cyangwa muri laboratwari y’umushakashatsi bigomba gukurwaho.
Newhouse yakoresheje imihoro yo gukata amashami ishobora gukururwa. Yakuruye umugozi, icyuma kiracika maze umufuka uragwa. Newhouse yimukiye vuba ku ishami rikurikira ryari rifunze maze asubiramo. Powell yakusanyije imifuka yaguye ayishyira mu mufuka munini wa pulasitiki, kimwe no gufata ibikoresho byangiza ubuzima.
Nyuma yo gusubira muri laboratwari, Newhouse na Hannah Pilkey bakuyemo ibinure by'umukara mu gikapu cy'icyatsi kibisi. Bitonze kugira ngo amahwa adakwirakwira mu ruhu, ibyo bikaba ari ikibazo gikomeye mu bushakashatsi ku bimera. Mu gihe cyashize, bakundaga imbuto zose z'agaciro zahinduwe mu ngirabuzimafatizo. Kuri iyi nshuro, amaherezo bari bafite nyinshi: zirenga 1.000. Pirkey yagize ati: “Twese turimo gukora imbyino nto zishimishije.”
Nyuma ya saa sita, Powell yajyanye ibiryo bya chestnut mu biro bya Neil Patterson mu cyumba cyo kuraramo. Hari ku munsi w’abaturage kavukire (Columbus Day), kandi Patterson, Umuyobozi wungirije w’ikigo cya ESF gishinzwe abaturage kavukire n’ibidukikije, yari agarutse avuye muri kimwe cya kane cy’ikigo, aho yayoboye imurikagurisha ry’ibiribwa kavukire. Abana be babiri n’umwishywa we barimo gukinira kuri mudasobwa mu biro. Buri wese yakuyemo imbuto z’ibinyobwa maze arya. Powell yagize agahinda agira ati: “Biracyari icyatsi kibisi.”
Impano ya Powell ni iy’ibintu byinshi. Ari gukwirakwiza imbuto, yizeye gukoresha urusobe rwa Patterson mu gutera imbuto z’ibihwagari mu turere dushya, aho zishobora kubona impongo zahinduwe mu ngirabuzimafatizo mu myaka mike. Yanagize uruhare mu buhanga mu bijyanye n’ubuhanga mu bijyanye n’ubuhanga mu buhanga mu buhigi.
Ubwo Patterson yahabwaga akazi na ESF mu 2014, yamenye ko Powell arimo kugerageza ibiti byahinduwe mu ngirabuzimafatizo, byari mu birometero bike uvuye ku gace k’igihugu cya Onondaga. Aka gace kari mu ishyamba mu birometero bike mu majyepfo ya Syracuse. Patterson yabonye ko umushinga niwugeraho, uturemangingo twihanganira indwara tuzagera ku butaka tugahurira n’udusimba dusigaye two mu bwoko bwa chestnut, bityo tugahindura ishyamba rifite akamaro kanini ku isura ya Onodaga. Yumvise kandi impungenge zituma abaharanira inyungu, barimo bamwe mu baturage kavukire, barwanya ibinyabuzima byahinduwe mu ngirabuzimafatizo ahandi. Urugero, mu 2015, umuryango wa Yurok wabujije ibidukikije bya GMO mu majyaruguru ya California kubera impungenge z’uko ibihingwa byayo bishobora kwanduza imyaka n’uburobyi bw’amafi ya salmon.
Patterson yarambwiye ati: “Ndabizi ko ibi byatubayeho hano; byibuze twagombye kuganira.” Mu nama y’Ikigo gishinzwe kurengera ibidukikije ya 2015 yahuje ESF, Powell yahaye ijambo ryigishijwe neza abaturage kavukire ba New York. Nyuma y’ijambo, Patterson yibukije ko abayobozi benshi bavuze bati: “Dukwiye gutera ibiti!” Ibyishimo byabo byatunguye Patterson. Yagize ati: “Sinari niteze.”
Ariko, ibiganiro byakurikiyeho byagaragaje ko bake muri bo bibuka neza uruhare igiti cya chestnut cyagize mu muco gakondo. Ubushakashatsi bwa Patterson bwamumenyesheje ko mu gihe imvururu mu mibereho no kwangirika kw'ibidukikije byarimo biba icyarimwe, guverinoma ya Amerika yari irimo gushyira mu bikorwa gahunda nini yo gusezerera no guhuza ibiti, kandi icyorezo cyari cyarageze. Kimwe n'ibindi bintu byinshi, umuco wa chestnut wo muri ako gace warazimye. Patterson yanasanze ibitekerezo ku bijyanye n'ubuhanga mu by'uturemangingo bitandukanye cyane. Alfie Jacques, uruganda rukora inkoni za lacrosse muri Onoda, yifuza gukora inkoni mu mbaho ​​za chestnut kandi ashyigikira uyu mushinga. Abandi batekereza ko ibyago ari byinshi cyane bityo bakarwanya ibiti.
Patterson arabyumva neza. Aherutse kumbwira ati: “Ni nk'aho terefone igendanwa n'umwana wanjye.” Yavuze ko umwana we agiye gusubira mu rugo avuye ku ishuri kubera icyorezo cya coronavirus. “Umunsi umwe nagiye ngerageza; kugira ngo bakomeze kuvugana, barimo kwiga. Umunsi ukurikiyeho, nk'aho, reka tubikureho.” Ariko imyaka myinshi yo kuganira na Powell yatumye arushaho gushidikanya. Mu gihe kitari kirekire cyane, yamenye ko abana basanzwe b'ibiti 58 bya Darling batazagira uturemangingo twazanywemo, bivuze ko utwo dukoko tw'ishyamba twa mbere tuzakomeza gukura mu ishyamba. Patterson yavuze ko ibi byakuyeho ikibazo gikomeye.
Mu ruzinduko rwacu mu Ukwakira, yambwiye ko impamvu atashoboye gushyigikira byuzuye umushinga wa GM ari uko atari azi niba Powell yita ku bantu bakorana n'igiti cyangwa igiti. Patterson yagize ati, “Sinzi icyo ari cyo kuri we.” Yavuze ko ari uko gusa umubano uri hagati y'umuntu n'igiti cy'umuhondo ushobora kugaruka, ari na byo bikenewe kongera kugarura iki giti.
Kugira ngo abigereho, yavuze ko ateganya gukoresha imbuto Powell yamuhaye mu gukora pudding y'ibishyimbo n'amavuta. Azazana ibi biryo mu gace ka Onondaga kandi atumire abantu kongera kuvumbura uburyohe bwabyo bwa kera. Yagize ati: “Nizeye ko ari ko bimeze, ni nko gusuhuza inshuti yawe ya kera. Ugomba kwinjira muri bisi aho wahagaze ubushize.”
Powell yahawe impano ya miliyoni 3.2 z'amadolari n'Ikigo cy'Ubufasha cya Templeton World muri Mutarama, izafasha Powell gukomeza mu gihe azaba anyura mu nzego zishinzwe kugenzura no kwagura ubushakashatsi bwe kuva ku bumenyi bw'uturemangingo kugeza ku ihinduka ry'imiterere y'ubutaka bwose. Niba leta imuhaye umugisha, Powell n'abahanga mu bya siyansi bo muri American Chestnut Foundation bazatangira kureka ngo irabya. Imbuto y'imbuto n'uturemangingo twayo tw'inyongera bizahuhwa cyangwa bigashyirwa ku biti birindiriye, kandi iherezo ry'uturemangingo twahinduwe mu turemangingo rizagaragara hatitawe ku bidukikije bigenzurwa. Dufashe ko iyo gene ishobora kubungabungwa haba mu murima no muri laboratwari, ibi ntibizwi neza, kandi izakwirakwira mu ishyamba - iyi ni ingingo y'ibidukikije abahanga mu bya siyansi bifuza ariko abakunda ibintu bikomeye baratinya.
Nyuma yuko igiti cya chestnut kiruhutse, ushobora kukigura? Yego, Newhouse yavuze ko ari wo mugambi. Abashakashatsi bagiye babazwa buri cyumweru igihe ibiti biboneka.
Mu isi Powell, Newhouse na bagenzi be batuyemo, biroroshye kumva ko igihugu cyose gitegereje igiti cyabo. Ariko, gutwara imodoka uvuye mu murima w’ubushakashatsi unyuze mu mujyi wa Syracuse bitwibutsa uburyo impinduka zikomeye zabaye mu bidukikije no mu muryango kuva aho ibiti by’inkeri byo muri Amerika bizimiye. Chestnut Heights Drive iherereye mu mujyi muto mu majyaruguru ya Syracuse. Ni umuhanda usanzwe w’abaturage ufite inzira nini, ubwatsi bwiza, rimwe na rimwe ibiti bito by’imitako birimo ikibuga cy’imbere. . Isosiyete y’ibiti ntisaba ko ibiti by’inkeri bivugururwa. Ubukungu bw’ubuhinzi bwihaza bushingiye ku biti by’inkeri bwarazimye burundu. Hafi ya buri wese ukura imbuto zoroshye kandi ziryoshye mu bimera bikomeye cyane. Abantu benshi bashobora no kutamenya ko nta kintu na kimwe kibura mu ishyamba.
Nahagaze maze ndya ifunguro rya nimugoroba hafi y'ikiyaga cya Onondaga munsi y'igicucu cy'igiti kinini cy'umuvu. Icyo giti cyari cyuzuyemo udukoko tw'icyatsi kibisi. Ndabona imyobo yakozwe n'udukoko mu gishishwa. Gitangira gutakaza amababi yacyo kandi gishobora gupfa no kugwa nyuma y'imyaka mike. Kugira ngo ngere hano mvuye iwacu muri Maryland, nanyuze ku biti ibihumbi by'umuvu byapfuye, bifite amashami y'iforomaje yambaye ubusa azamuka iruhande rw'umuhanda.
Muri Appalachia, iyi kompanyi yakuye ibiti mu gace kanini ka Bitlahua kugira ngo ibone amakara munsi yayo. Umutima w'igihugu cy'amakara uhuye n'umutima w'igihugu cyahoze ari icya chestnut. Umuryango w'Abanyamerika wa Chestnut Foundation wakoranye n'imiryango yateye ibiti ku birombe by'amakara byasizwe, kandi ibiti by'amakara ubu bikura ku butaka bwa hegitari ibihumbi byagizweho ingaruka n'ibiza. Ibi biti ni bimwe mu bimera bivanze birwanya indwara ya bagiteri, ariko bishobora kugereranywa n'igiti gishya gishobora guhangana n'amashyamba ya kera.
Muri Gicurasi ushize, ubwinshi bwa dioxyde de carbone mu kirere bwageze ku bice 414.8 kuri miliyoni ku nshuro ya mbere. Kimwe n'ibindi biti, uburemere bw'ibimera byo muri Amerika bitaremereye amazi ni hafi kimwe cya kabiri cya karubone. Ibintu bike ushobora guhinga ku butaka bishobora kwinjiza karubone mu kirere vuba kurusha igiti cyo muri karubone gikura. Mu gihe cy'ibi, inkuru yasohotse mu kinyamakuru Wall Street Journal umwaka ushize yagize iti: “Reka tugire ubundi buhinzi bw'ibimera.”